全文颜色说明

red代表与小标题相关的关键信息。
blue代表与小标题无关的重要信息。
green代表自己归纳出的对自己很关键的信息。

1. 名词所有格

A. 名词所有格（名词表达所属关系）
‘s 所有格和of 所有格是名词表达所属关系的两种结构。这两种结构有时可以通用，’s 所有格的应用范围更广。
所有单数名词的所有格都是加 ‘s,无论单数名词最后以什么辅音字母结尾，其所有格必须加 ‘s，而不是单纯的使用‘。所有复数名词的所有格都是加 ‘。所有单数名词的所有格都是加 ‘s

Burns’s friend
the witch’s malice

特例是以-es或者-is结尾的古代专有名词或者古代习惯用语。

Moses’ Laws(摩西律法)
Isis’ temple(爱色斯神殿)
jesus’
for conscience’ sake(为了良心)
for righterousness’ sake(为了正义)

这些特例，可以转变为of所有格

the laws of Mases
the temple of Isis

B. 物主代词（代词表达所属关系）

代词	类别	一	二	三	三	三	一	二	三
人称代词	主格	I	you	he	she	it	we	you	they
人称代词	宾格	me	you	him	her	it	us	you	them
物主代词	形容词性物主代词	my	your	his	her	its	our	your	their
物主代词	名词性物主代词	mine	yours	his	hers	its	ours	yours	theirs

He has a camera. The camera belongs to him. It is his camera. The camera is his.
She has a diamond ring. The diamond ring belongs to her. It is her diamond ring. The diamond ring is hers.
They have a tea garden. The tea garden belongs to them. It is their tea garden. The tea garden is theirs.

C. 不定代词表达所属关系
不定代词需要用 $’s$表示所属关系。

one’s right (某人的权力)
somebody else’s umbrella (别人的雨伞)

D. 名词所有格和物主代词的关系

名词所有格和物主代词都是用于表示所属关系，区别在于1个需要用’s或者of进行限定(Burns’s friend, the laws of Mases)，而另一个不需要(my, your, its, their, our)。

E. 形容词性物主代词的2种变体its own和itself

its own——做定语：The dog has lost its own mother.
itself——做宾语： The dog is playing with itself.
itself——–做状语：The dog is playing by itself.
itself——做同位语：The dog itself is lying on its own back in its own house.

2. 代词所有格

代词包括:人称代词(主格,宾格),物主代词(adj, n),不定代词,关系代词(who: 主格,宾格,所有格), 反身代词等.

A. 人称代词和关系代词who,作主语和宾语时,需要用主格和宾格.

The culprit, it turned out, was he.(罪犯原来时他)
Who knocks?
Whom should I ask?

B. Who引导从句时,其格取决于其在从句中的语法功能(做主语,还是宾语,还是所有格)

Give this work to whoever looks idle.
Tom is the candidate who we think will win. (we think he will win)
Tom is the candidate whom we hope to elect.(we hope to elect him)

C. 代词和比较级连用的时候,人称代词使用主格和宾格,意思完全不同，不要省略代词后面的动词
同样一句话,不同格,意思完全不同,所以不要省略代词后面的动词

I think Tom admires Jessica more than I. —> I think Tom admires Jessica more than I do.
I think Tom admires Jessica more than me. —> I think Tom admires Jessica more than he admires me.

一个特殊的句子:
A group of us taxpayers protested. (我们一群纳税人提出了抗议)

us作为taxpayers的同位语,一起充当介词of的宾语. 这个句子语法上面没有问题,但是表达不恰当.
修改为: A group of us protested as taxpayers. (语言最大的特点是无歧义,而非技巧)

D. 反身代词不能用作句子的主语

E. 形容词性的物主代词 VS 名词性物主代词

your hat
a hat of yours
The dog has buried one of your gloves and one of mine in the flower bed.

F. 代词 + 现在分词 VS 动名词

Do you mind me asking a question? (现在分词做宾补) —> Do you mind me asking a question? (mind的核心在于me)
Do you mind my asking a question? (动名词做宾语) —> Do you mind my asking a question? (mind的核心在于question)

3. 插入语

插入语可以位于句子的前面，中间，后面。如果在句子中间的时候，应该位于两个逗号之间。例如：

The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.

这条规则不易应用，因为常常很难确定一个词或者一个短语是否是插入语。如果插入的词语仅轻微的终端句子的行文，作者完全可以省略其前后的两个逗号。但是无论中断行文的程度如何，绝不可以省略一个而保留另一个。例如：

Mary’s husband, Nelson paid us a visit yesterday.(错误的表达)

A. 插入语是什么？
插入语是对主句起补充说明作用的，而非限定作用的(缩小范围)，可以和主句拆分为2个独立的句子。

People sitting in the rear couldn’t hear.
Uncle Bert, being slight deaf, moved forward.
My cousin Bob is talented harpist.
Our oldest daughter, Mary, sings.

B. 常见的插入语有哪些？

1. 形容词或形容词短语作插入语
   sure enough果然， worse still更糟糕的是， true真的， funny真可笑， strange to say说也奇怪， needless to say不用说， most important of all最为重要的是等。

   He, sure enough, came out with all the news we wanted.

2. 副词或副词短语作插入语
   certainly(当然)，surely(无疑)，indeed(的确)，however(然而)，fortunately(幸运的是)，luckily(幸运的是)，probably(大概)，personally(就个人来讲)等。

   Yes, indeed, I intend to go.

3. 介词短语用作插入语
   in fact(事实上)，in one’s opinion(在某人看来)，of course(当然)，above all /first of all (首先)，by the way (顺便)，in short（简言之）等。

   You have to admit that you are, in fact, in difficulties.

4. 现在分词短语作插入语
   generally speaking(一般来讲)，generally considering(一般认为)，strictly speaking(严格地说)，judging from/by (根据……来判断)，considering……等。

   It was, strictly speaking, my duty.

5. 过去分词短语作插入语

   Painted white, we like the house better.
   之所以称它为插入语，是由于这种过去分词是独立的，没有逻辑主语。

6. 不定式作插入语
   to be frank(坦率地说)，to tell(you )the truth(老实说)，to be sure(当然)，so to speak(可以说)等。

   To be frank, he could also be a bit of a bore.

7. 从句作插入语
   if so / not / any, if I may say so, if you don’t mind, as you know, as you say 等.

   This man, as you know, is good for nothing.

   插入语可以是一个完整的句子。
8. 分句作插入语
   I think(我认为)，I hope (我希望)，I’m afraid(恐怕)，What’s more(而且)，What’s worse(更糟的是)，You see (你清楚)等。

   The old man, it is said, was an artist but people hardly know anything about this side of his life.

C. 日期中的数字作为插入语

February to July, 2019
July 6, 2019
Wednesday, July 6, 2019
July 2019

D. 缩写词作为插入语
缩写词etc.(等等)， i.e.(即是,等价于that is)， 和e.g.(例如)，Ph.D.等。

Letter, packets, etc., shoud go here.

E. 非限制性定语从句作为插入语

The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.

在这些句子中，由which, when, where引导的都是非限制性从句，他们不起限制性作用，仅仅起到补充作用。which引导的从句并非用来指明哪些观众，而是补充叙述这件事，这个现象。

The audience who had at first been indifferent became more and more interested.

这个who引导的从句用来限定哪些观众。限定性从句不是插入语，不能用逗号隔开。

4. 主谓语单复数

主语的单复数决定谓语动词的单复数，介于主语和谓语动词之间的词不影响谓语动词的单复数。

The bittersweet flavor of youth —- its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges —- is not soon forgotten.

A. 关系代词作主语—-其谓语动词与代指的主体单复数一致
关系代词(who, which, that, as, but)作主语并由它引导的定语从句接在“one of ”等不定代词之后时，从句中的谓语动词很容易用单数（这是错误的），应该用用复数。这个与关系代词所指代的主语单复数一致。

One of those people who are never ready on time.
One of the ablest men who have attacked this problem. (能人)

B. 不定代词作主语—-其谓语动词用单数
不定代词作主语时，其谓语动词用单数。不定代词包括：each，either，everyone，everybody，neither，nobody，someone(某人)。

Everybody thinks he has a sense of humor.
Although both clocks strike-cheerfully, neither keeps good time.

特例：
当none表示“没有一个人”时，谓语动词用单数，当none表示“一个以上的人或物”时，谓语动词用复数。

None of us is perfect.
None are so fallible as those who are sure they’re right.

C. 用and连接的复合主语作主语—-其谓语动词用复数
由2个或者2个以上的名词用and连接起来组成的复合主语，谓语动词用复数。

The dog and the cat were walking close at hand.

特例：
某些约定俗称的复合主语，就像由each或者every修饰的复合主语，因搭配固定而被看作一个单位，谓语动词用单数。

The long and the short of it is …
Bread and butter was all she served.
Give and take is essential to a happy household.
Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed.

D. 用其他连词连接的复合主语作主语—-其谓语动词与第一个主语单复数一致
一个单数主语，即使由其他的名词通过with，as well as，in addition to，except，together with，no less than(正好，就是)与之相连，谓语动词用单数。

His speech as well as his manner is objectionable.(令人讨厌的)
The trouble with truth is its many varieties.

E. 部分名词表面时复数形式,但语法上是单数

Politics is an art, not a science. (政治)
The Republican Headquarters is on this side of the tracks.
一本书的目录(contents)单数概念,一个坛子里面的东西(contents)可能单数可能复数,与坛子里面的内容有关.

核心区分点在于: 插入语,代词,复合主语,词汇形式

5. 数字

日期和其他的连顺的号码不要拼写出来，写成阿拉伯数字或者罗马数字比较好。特例：除非在对话中，最好把他们拼写出来。

August 9, 1988
Part XII
352d Infantry
Rule 3
“In the year 1990, I turned twenty-one.”
“I arrived home on August ninth.”

6. 书名

论文中，书名写作规范：斜体且首字母大写。书名前用所有格时候，请删去书名开头的冠词A或者The.

A Tale of Two Cities ; Dickens’s Tale of Two Cities.
The Age of Innocence ; Wharton’s Age of Innocence .